UNIT 5

The answers :

1. When the children was 5 years old, “Nobody likes me” is a common complaint, when children tend to be popularity conscious.
2.  When the children was 10 years old, “Nobody likes me” was a danger signal. It can mean the children was depressing.
3. Depressed children are frequently tired, extremely active or inactive, cry a great deal, have a school phobia, or think often about death or suicide.
4. The children get depression  because of friendlessness, inability to have fun or to concentrate, and absence of normal emotional reactions.
5. Yes, they will get depression when the children accused by their friends.
6. The symptoms of childhood depression are have trouble concentrating, lose their appetite, start doing poorly in school, look unhappy, and represent a marked change from the child’s usual pattern.
7. The parents do not always recognize “minor” problem when their children get depression.

Exercise 2

1. I am not manager. I am just a staff in this office. Don’t give your complaints to move because I can’t determine its follow-up. Please address your complaints to the manager.
2. I really hate someone who accuse me without a real evidence. Don’t think that I am a thief if you don’t have a proof. Don’t say that I am a coward if you don’t know much about me.
3. She is a careful woman. She never puts her money in her pocket. She always puts it in her purse. Besides, she also puts it in the bag.
4. He has sacrificed his life for the woman he loves very much. But the woman, unfortunately, runs away with the other man. He really hates that women, even all of the women. He vowed never to fall in love with the women.
5. Because of my sadness, I don’t have appetite. I am not interested in food in front of me although it is very delicious. I don’t want to eat it severe.

Exercise 3

1. Predisposition        : There is some evidence for a biochemical predisposition, which        may be triggered by specific experiences.

2. Feature                  : If we want to have a good feature, we must responsible with our work.

3. Triggered               : The parents should to fast triggered if their children get  depression.

4. Symptoms             : There are several symptoms of childhood depression.

5. Depression            : Friendlessness is only one sign of childhood depression.

6. Harmless               : He is harmless, because he is not insane.

7. Severe                   : Suffer severe separation anxiety may take the form of the school phobia.

8. Disturb                  : I’ll angry if you disturb me again.

9. Complaint              : Many people complaint about the government system.

10. Disorder              : When someone gets depression, their mind gets disorder too.

Exercise 4

The answers :

1. He usually smokes a cigarette after every meal.
2. Do they ever write to you ?
3. Sometimes, you can tell if a dog is dreaming by watching its legs.
4. I usually pass the post office on my way back.
5. The roof occasionally leaks when it rains.
6. This type of plants never grows tall.
7. It hardly ever rains in this part of the world.
8. Do you often answer back life this ?
9. We frequently correspond through the post.
10. They generally invite us over for a cup of tea.
11. She is usually very busy at this time of the day.
12. Had the lesson already started when you arrived ?
13. We nearly have finished our syllabus for a year.
14. Your friend always needs your help.
15. We are sometimes lazy to cook, so we eat out.
16. I almost tripped over the dog in the dark.

The answers :

1. Sometimes John drinks coffee.
2. He seldom drinks tea.
3. Mr. Allen often drinks coffee.
4. Mrs. Allen seldom drinks coffee.
5. She always drinks coffee.
6. Mr. and Mrs. Clinton sometimes eat in restaurant.
7. Chessie seldom eats in a restaurant.
8. Philip always eats in bamboo reastaurant.
9. She always eats at home.
10. Mr. and Mrs. Tanty often eats in a restaurant.

UNIT 2

SIGMUND FREUD (1856-1939)

Sigmund Freud was as Austrian doktor who explored the workings of the human mind. He delevoped psychoanalysis, which is both a way treating neurosis, or mental disturbances, and a theory of how the mind works.

Freud was born in Moravia, now part of Czechoslovakia. When he was four, his family moved to Viena, Austria. Freud entered the University of Viena when he was 17. One day he attended a lecture on nature. He was so fascinated that he made up his mind to become a docter.

Freud become interested in diseases of the mind. In 1885, he won a fellowship to study in Paris under the guidance of a doctor, Jean Martin Chariot, who was famaos for his work on this kind of diseases. The next year, Freud returned to Vienna, married, and began to treat diseases of the mind.

Freud has great insight into the human mind. He thought that every person is born with certain needs, he said, are unconscious-people are not a ware of thinking a bout such needs. Freud named the part of mind controlling these instinctive unconscious needs the id, and said that person's id operates to give pleasure.

Freud also said that, as we grow up from infancy, we acquire an ego, a collection of memories and thoughts that help us deal with the word around us. We continue to grow, and from the teaching of our family and society, we develop a superego- a conscience. Our superego and id often push in opposite ways. Our ego usually reduces this conflict by helping us to get pleasure without "hurting" our conscience.

But if a person unconscious thought and needs are very strong, they may cause unusual behavior, or neurosis. Freud's treatment for neurosis is psychoanalysis (examination of the mind), a method for uncovering these unconscious thoughts and understanding how they cause problems, Freud thoughts that dreams-even dreams that seem to make no sense- are a very important clue to understanding the mind.

Exercise 1

Answer these following question based on the above text!

1. when was Sigmund Freud born? 

2. How old did he die? 

3. What was he concerned with? 

4. When did he join University? 

5. Why did he want to be a doctor? 

6. Who was Jean Martin Chariot? 

7. According to Freud, food and drink are unconscious needs. Why did he say so?

8. These needs, he sad, are unconscious - people are no aware of thinking about such needs. What does "dash" (-)" mean? 

9. Mention the example of conscious needs and don't forget to explain each!

10. What do id, ego, and superego mean? 

The answers :

1. Sigmund was born in 1856.
2. he died at 83 years old.
3. He was concerned in diseases of the human mind.
4. He joined in university when he was 17 years old. He studied in a lecture on nature major.
5. He wanted to be a doctor because, he was so fascinated.
6. Jean Martin Chariot is a famous doctor who was the Sigmund Freud's advisor/guide.
7. He said so because, people are not aware of thingking about such needs.
8. The dash means that the next text explains the previous text.
9. The examples of conscious needs is clothes. Because, when we need some clothes, we should to go shopping and buy it.
10. Id is the need that are instinctive unconscious. For example, it can be an imtict to drink or eat.

Ego is the need to grow or nature an human beings, for example, ego can be the need to be a leader/ manager.

Superego is family or social needs. For example superego can be unconssience derived from parents and society such as be good to your friends, do not spoil the party.

Exercise 2

Conscious, make up his mind, fellowship, fascinate, and acquire, disturbance, dealing, and ego

1. He is always confused to choose which girl he should marry. His friends tells him  to make his mind up which girl he tends to marry quickly.
2. He is a smart students but poor. He wants to enter the University without paying anything. His uncle, then, asks him to join a fellowship program
3. My child is always interested in toys-cars and always asks me to buy them. One day we want shopping in delta plaza. Suddenly he stopped in front of car-shop and pointed out the big car. As a mater of fact, he was fascinate by the car, which was like his toy-car. And do you know what happened? He asked me to buy that car!
4. He was in coma for days, but now he is fully conscious again.
5. Some student say, that they study hard because they want to get reward from their parents. Some want to obtain good marks and some other want to aquire knowledge only.
6. Dealing some problems we have to discuss, would you please attend the meeting scheduled on Saturday night, 17 august 1995 at my house. Because it is very urgent, no excuse for you not to come to the meeting. Thanks a lot.

UNIT 1

 PSYHOCOLOGY AT A GLANCE

            Psychology studies the activities of individual. The science of human behaviors is actually a group of sciences. On one side we find psychology investigating the organs and cells that do the work of the organism, and the other side we see the social sciences studying nations and groups of mankind. There  is room for a middle science that shall focus its attention on the individual. That middle science is psychology. Psychology studies the individual’s activities through-out his span of life, from the beginning before birth, up through the end of life. During this life history, the man remains the same individual, although his behavior shows continuity along whit many changes.

Psychology compares children and adults, the normal and the abnormal and the human and the animal. It is interested in the differences between one individual and another, and still more interested, if possible, in the general laws of activity including event of very different individuals-laws, for example, of growth, learning, thinking and emotion. Psychology can be defined as the science of the individual’s activities.

            The word “activity” is used here in a board sense. It includes not only motor activities like walking and speaking but also cognitive (knowledge-getting) activities like seeing, hearing, remembering, thinking, and other emotional activities like laughing and crying, or feeling happy or sad. These last may seem passive, because they are activities, for they depend on the life of the organism. Any manifestation of life can be called an activity. No matter how passive an individual may seem to himself in watching a game or listening to music, he is really carrying on an activity. The only way to be completely in active is to be dead.

Exercise 1

 Answer these following questions

1. What is psychology ?

2. Name some individual activities?

3. Give example(s) of motor, cognitive, and emotional activities?

4. Is listening to music a kind activity? Why? Why not?

5. What is meant by : the science of human behavior is actually a group of sciences?

6. When do we call an individual completely inactive?

7. The word “activity” is used in a very broad of sense. What does it mean?

8. What kind of activity is happening when you write a letter to your girl or boy friend?

9. Why do we study human behavior?

10. What causes the differences between individuals?

The answers :

1.      Psychology is a science of human behaviour.

2.      Science individual activities are motor, cognitive, and emotional activity.

3.      Example (s) : * motor = walking, speaking, running

    * cognitive = seeing, hearing, listening, thingking, remembering

    * emotional : laughing, crying, angry, happy

4.   Yes. Because, listening to music is one of cognitive activities.

      5.   The meaning is the science of human behaviours investigating the organs and cells of the organism, social life, nations, statistic, etc.

      6.   We call an individual completely inactive when they dead.

      7.   It means that activity not only motor activities, but also cognitive and emotional activities.

      8.   Happening is one of emotional activity

      9.   Because it is interested in the diffences between one individual and another.

    10.   His behaviour shows continuity along whit many changes, including event of very different individual – laws.

Exercise 2

1.      He loves his mother very much. When his mother was sick, He showed his attention.

2.      When he was child, he never played toys. He really had an unhappy childhood.

3.      Their behaviour towards me shows that they do not like me. It can be proved from how they look at me. When we meet, they always look away for me.

4.      When a boy or girl gets biological changes and psychological changes (puberty), he or she enters in the adolescence era.

5.      When a baby lears how to take a walk and how to talk, he develops his motor activity.

6.      It is common for a mother to make her baby smile by doing a funny thing. Often, she does not get smilling and crying, even laughing, is good for a baby because at such time he develops his emotional activity.

7.      There was a mysterious murder. The police get difficulties to handle this case and look for the murderer. Finally they ask some detectives to investigates this case.

8.      In Javanese culture when a baby is just delivered by a mother, the other people always try to wake the baby up by making aloud noise. The baby of course, is surprised. But it is good for him because he develops his cognitive activity.

UNIT 4

Exercise 1

1. Not many people are shy. (F)
2. Others make us shy.(F)
3. Shy people have negative thoughts about themselves. (T)
4. At a party, try to speak with at least one person. This is a first step in fighting shyness. (T)
5. Giving someone compliment is a good why to start small talk. (T)
6. Shyness should be kept a secret. (T)
7. Every person has good qualities. (T)
8. We can quickly eliminate shyness when we decide to do that. (F)
9. We can reduce shyness whit a step-by-step plan. (T)
10. Only perfect people are not shy. (F)

Exercise 2

1. Yolanda was very sad when her cat died, and all her friends sympathized with her. They knew how much she loved her cat.
2. Paul wants to become a doctor. Naturally, he has to go to school for many years and work very hard.
3. When Debbie said she wanted to go to China for two months, her family had many discussions before deciding to let her go.
4. It is interesting to observe how students act on the first day of school. Some are relaxed, but most are shy and uncomfortable.
5. Many little children sleep with a small light on in their room, because darkness is negative to them.
6. Kaisha didn’t like her new haircut at all, but she knew her hair would grow long again gradually.
7. When Maria goes to a party, she loves to get compliments on her pretty dress.
8. Stephen loves to shop in department stores. He always gives away his old clothes and wears the current fashion.
9. Sra like to express her opinions on everything – even if nobody wants to hear her. Sometimes she is dislike because of this.
10. A grade of 100% is a perfect score. It means that the student made no mistake on the test.
11. When Min Chen to Queens Collage, she discovered that many people from her city in China were also students there.
12. When Carlos wanted to have a party for this wife, he asked for suggestions for interesting food to prepare. After many friends tried to help him, he decided to use his favorite old recipes.
13. Applying to collage means sending in an application, getting records from high school, writing your life story, and going for interviews. It is a long process, and it makes students nervous.
14. My friends think that smoking is a dirty and dangerous habit. I agree with their   intimidating opinions.
15. People who want to lose weight should eliminate candy and ice cream from their diet.

Exercise 3

1. Shy people can sympathize with others who are shy

    * Condolence, solace, and consolation are some kind of sympathy expression

2. It is natural for shy people to wish they were outgoing

    * Naturally, we really don't to hurt ourselves

3. A shy person feels uncomfortable when someone makes a compliment remark

* The firm offers a broad range of expertise because these areas are so often    complementary in nature

4. Having discussion about shyness can be helpful

    * The guys stopped to discuss what we wanted to do.

5. Currently, there are several books in the library on the subject of shyness

    * alternating current was not supplied until after the Second World War.

6. No one should expect perfection from himself or herself

    * This trip is perfect for anyone fascinated by marine life.

7. Psychologist has many suggestions for overcoming shyness

    * Can you suggest any improvements to how we can support artists better?

8. By trying one suggestion at a time, a shy person will discover he or she can fight shyness

    * The first stage of the process is drug discovery.

9. Choose a person who is not intimidating to invite for coffee and conversation

    * The National Guard responded by further increasing repression and using force to  contain and intimidate all government opposition.

UNIT 3

Exercise 1

1. I can’t afford that ring. Its cost too much.
2. Look. It is beginning to rain. Unfortunately, I don’t have my umbrella with me.. Tom is lucky. He is wearing a raincoat.
3. I don’t have an umbrella. I wear a waterproof hat on rainy days.
4. Right now I am looking around the classroom. Yoko is writing in her book. Carlos is bitting his pencil. Wan-Ning is scratching his head. Ahmed to be daydreaming, but perhaps he is thinking hard about verb tenses. What do you think Ahmed doing is ?
5. There’s a book on my desk, but it doesn’t belong to me.
6. Dennis fixes the roof of his house today, and he needs some help. Can you help him ?
7. Barbara is often tutoring other students in her math assignment because he doesn’t understand the material they work on in their class this week.
8. Right now, I am looking at Janet. She looks angry. I wonder what’s the matter. She has a frown on her face. She certainly doesn’t have any fun right now.
9. A : Who is that woman who stands next to the window ?
B : Which woman ? Do you talk about the woman who wears the blue and gold dress ?
A : No, I am not talking about her. I mean the woman who wears the blue suit.
B : Oh, I don’t know. I don’t recognize her.
10. A : Close your eyes. Now listen carefully. What do you hear ? What am I doing ?
B : I believe you are rubbing the top if your desk whit your hand.
A : Close, but not exactly right. Try again. Do you listen carefully ?
B : Aha ! You are rubbing your hands together.
A : Right !


Exercise 2

1. I Almost had a car accident last night. I was driving down Washington Avenue when suddenly I saw a car in my lane. It came right at my car, I stepped on the brakes and swerved to the right. The other car just missed my car by about an inch.
2. Ten years ago, the government decided to begin a food program. At the time, many people in the rural areas of the country was starving due to several years of drought.
3. IT was my first day of class. I finally found the right room. The room already been full of students. On one side of the room, students was talking busily to each other on Spanish. Other students was speaking Japanese, and some was conversing in Arabic. It sounded like the United Nations. Some of students, however, just sit quietly by themselves. I chose an empty seat in the last row and sit down. In a few minutes, the teacher walked into the room and all the multilingual conversation stopped.
4. A : Did you hear what she just said ?
B : No, I didn’t listen. I was thinking about something else.
5. A : Why weren’t you at the meeting ?
B : I was waiting for an overseas call from my family.
6. A : I’m sure you met Carol Jones at the party last night.
B : I don’t remember her. What she did ?
7. A : What’s wrong with your foot ?
B : I stepped on a bee while I was running barefoot through the grass. It stung me.
8. A : How did you break your warm ?
B : I slipped on the ice while I was crossing the street in front of drom.



Exercise 3

1. Sally is in room listening to music.
2. Roy is on the couch taking a nap.
3. Anita was in England attending a conference last month.
4. The teacher is at her desk correcting papers.
5. Some of students were at the park playing soccer so they were late to class.


Exercise 4

1. I haven’t attended any parties since I came here.
2. I went to a party at sally’s apartment last Saturday night.
3. Bill has arrived here three days ago.
4. Bill has been here since the 22nd.
5. Try to not to be absent from class again for the rest of the term. You have already missed many classes. You missed two classes just last week.
6. Last January, I saw snow for the first time in my life.
7. In her whole lifetime, Anna never has seen snow.
8. I have known Greg Adams for ten years.
9. So far this week, I have had two tests and a quiz.
10. Up to now, Professor Williams has already given our class five tests.


Exercise 5

1. I have bought many books since the beginning of the semester.
2. I haven’t gotten any letters so far this month/week.
3. I heven’t written any letters so far this month/week.
4. So far, You have asked several questions.
5. I have flown in an airplane several times.
6. I have met many people since I came here.


Exercise 6

1. He was a newspaper reporter before he became a businessman.
2. I felt a little better after I had took the medicine.
3. I was late the teacher had already given a quiz when I got to class.
4. The anthropologist had left the village when she collected enough data.
5. It was raining hard, but by the time class was over, the rain had stopped.


Exercise 7

1. Class had already begun by the time I got there, so I make, quietly a seat in the back.
2. I hadn’t seen any of Picasso’s paintings before I visited the art museum.
3. I almost missed my plane. All of the other passangers had already boarded by the time I got there.
4. Yesterday at a restaurant, I saw Pam Donnely, an old friend of mine. I had not seen her in years. At first, I didn’t recognize her because she had lost at least fifty pounds.

English Task I

A.Simple Sentences

1) She eats meatball.
2) My mother cooks fried rice in the kitchen.
3) My father reads a newspaper.
4) I buy some clothes in boutique.
5) She wears a new shoes.


B. Complex Sentences

1) Eventhough she always feel hot, she won’t cut her long hair.
2) If I have a good voice, I will join in a vocal group.
3) Although he was sick, he presents the English class today.
4) If she didn’t invite me, I wouldn’t come to her party.
5) If I were you, I will give him my sorry.

C. Synonym of Verb (the Reading Text Lesson I)

1)      Study = learn

2)      Find = discover

3)      Interesting = attractive

4)      Define = explain

5)      Show = display

Social Psychology

Social psychology is the study of the relations between people and groups. Scholars in this interdisciplinary area are typically either psychologists or sociologists, though all social psychologists employ both the individual and the group as their units of analysis.

Despite their similarity, psychological and sociological researchers tend to differ in their goals, approaches, methods, and terminology. They also favor separate academic journals and professional societies. The greatest period of collaboration between sociologists and psychologists was during the years immediately following World War II. Although there has been increasing isolation and specialization in recent years, some degree of overlap and influence remains between the two disciplines

        Social psychology is the study of the relations between people and groups. Scholars in this interdisciplinary area are typically either psychologists or sociologists, though all social psychologists employ both the individual and the group as their units of analysis.

      Despite their similarity, psychological and sociological researchers tend to differ in their goals, approaches, methods, and terminology. They also favor separate academic journals and professional societies. The greatest period of collaboration between sociologists and psychologists was during the years immediately following World War II. Although there has been increasing isolation and specialization in recent years, some degree of overlap and influence remains between the two disciplines

       Most psychologists are trained within psychology. Their approach to the field focuses on the individual and attempts to explain how the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals are influenced by other people. Psychologically oriented researchers emphasize the immediate social situation and the interaction between person and situation variables. Their research tends to be empirical and quantitative, and it is often centered around laboratory experiments, but there are some computational modeling efforts in the field.

       In its early days, with the exception of sociologists of the day, social psychology struggled for recognition as a social science. One of the earliest psychologists to deal directly with this was William McDougall. Contemporary social psychology is "characterised by a fundamental commitment to the experimental method".While publications on social psychology tend to be dominated by American texts, efforts have been made to balance this by publication of a European perspective.

 

Educational Psychology

Educational Psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Educational psychology is concerned with how students learn and develop, often focusing on subgroups such as gifted children and those subject to specific disabilities. Although the terms "educational psychology" and "school psychology" are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified in the US and Canada as educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as school psychologists. This distinction is however not made in the UK, where the generic term for practitioners is "educational psychologist". 

Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialities within educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education and classroom management. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks.  

To understand the characteristics of learners in childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age, educational psychology develops and applies theories of human development. Often represented as stages through which people pass as they mature, developmental theories describe changes in mental abilities, social roles, moral reasoning, and beliefs about the nature of knowledge.

      For example, educational psychologists have researched the instructional applicability of Jean Piaget's theory of development, according to which children mature through four stages of cognitive capability. Piaget hypothesized that children are not capable of abstract logical thought until they are older than about 11 years, and therefore younger children need to be taught using concrete objects and examples. Researchers have found that transitions, such as from concrete to abstract logical thought, do not occur at the same time in all domains. A child may be able to think abstractly about mathematics, but remain limited to concrete thought when reasoning about human relationships. Perhaps Piaget's most enduring contribution is his insight that people actively construct their understanding through a self-regulatory process.

Industrial Psychology

Essentially, Industrial Psychologists study the behavior of employees in a work setting. Although industrial psychology didn't begin until the 1920's, the discipline has evolved rapidly and revolutionized the workplace within the last century. Because the workplace is a social system, the application of industrial psychology is useful in understanding its complexity.

For years, psychologists have studied how human beings have interacted with their environments and each other, but industrial psychology begins to evaluate the interaction between people and their jobs. Industrial psychologists can be used to improve job satisfaction as well as company productivity and is becoming vital to the success of many organizations.

There are certain things that industrial psychologists focus on when evaluating the relationship a person has with their work. They analyze the way a person works, their skills, duties, obligations, and general satisfaction with their job on a day-to-day basis. This information is extremely helpful to human resources departments and company overseers who must create training programs, feedback and rewards systems, and make hiring decisions as well as engage in recruitment practices. Most companies use industrial psychologists to train their own staff so that the organizations can run smoothly and at peak capacity.

Developmental Psychology

     There are a number of important issues that have been debated throughout the history of  Developmental Psychology.

Nature vs. Nurture

     The debate over the relative contributions of inheritance and the environment is one of the oldest issues in both philosophy and psychology. Philosophers such as Plato and Descartes supported the idea that some ideas are inborn. On the other hand, thinkers such as John Locke argued for the concept of tabula rosa a belief that the mind is a blank slate at birth, with experience determining our knowledge.
      Today, most psychologists believe that it is an interaction between these two forces that causes development. Some aspects of development are distinctly biological, such as puberty. However, the onset of puberty can be affected by environmental factors such as diet and nutrition.

Early Experience vs. Later Experience

     A second important consideration in developmental psychology involves the relative importance of early experiences versus those that occur later in life.
      Psychoanalytic theorists tend to focus upon events that occur in early childhood. According to Freud, much of a child’s personality is completely established by the age of five. If this is indeed the case, those who have experienced deprived or abusive childhoods might never adjust or develop normally.
      In contrast to this view, researchers have found that the influence of childhood events does not necessarily have a dominating effect over behavior throughout the life. Many people with less-that-perfect childhoods go on to develop normally into well-adjusted adults.

Continuity vs. Discontinuity

     A third major issue in developmental psychology is that of continuity. Does change occur smoothly over time, or through a series of predetermined steps? Some theories of development argue that changes are simply a matter of quantity; children display more of certain skills as they grow older. Other theories outline a series of sequential stages in which skills emerge at certain points of development. Most theories of development fall under three broad areas:

1. Psychoanalytic theories are those influenced by the work of  Sigmund Freud, who believed in the importance of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences. Freud’s contribution to developmental theory was his proposal that development occurs through a series of psychosexual stages.

2. Learning theories focus on how the environment impacts behavior. Important learning processes include classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. In each case, behavior is shaped by the interaction between the individual and the environment.

3. Cognitive theories focus on the development of mental processes, skills, and abilities. Examples of cognitive theories include Piaget's theory of cognitive development.

Abnormal Behavior vs. Individual Differences

     One of the biggest concerns of many parents is whether or not their child is developing normally. Developmental guidelines chart the age at which certain skills and abilities emerge, creating concern when a child falls slightly behind the norm. While developmental theories have historically focused upon deficits in behavior, focus on individual differences in development is becoming more common.
      Psychoanalytic theories are traditionally focused upon abnormal behavior, so developmental theories in this area tend to describe deficits in behavior. Learning theories rely more on the environment's unique impact on an individual, so individual differences are an important component of these theories. Today, psychologists look at both norms and individual differences when describing child development.

Clinical Psychology

Clinical psychology is an integration of science, theory and clinical knowledge for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development. Central to its practice are psychological essessment and psychotherapy , although clinical psychologists also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and administration. In many countries, clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession.

The field is often considered to have begun in 1896 with the opening of the first psychological clinic at the University of Pennsylvania by Lightner Witmer. In the first half of the 20th century, clinical psychology was focused on psychological assessment, with little attention given to treatment. This changed after the 1940s when World War II resulted in the need for a large increase in the number of trained clinicians. Since that time, two main educational models have developed—the Ph.D. science-practitioner model (focusing on research) and the Psy.D. practitioner-scholar model (focusing on clinical practice). Clinical psychologists are now considered experts in providing psychotherapy, and generally train within four primary theoretical orientations—psychodynamic, humanistic, behavior therapy/ cognitive behavioral, and systems or family therapy.